By Emmaline M. Gappa
Department of Psychology, University of Mary
My heart beat painfully within my chest as blood pulsed through my ears. The loud, rhythmic pounding drowned out all the noise. The smell of sweat flooded my senses and my muscles began to twitch with anticipation. My hands were bricks and my mind a broken record - this is it, this is it. All this waiting, all this time, training, effort, pain, it all came to this moment. Suddenly one voice sounded above the rest. “Are you ready?” I looked up. I mustered a “maybe.” My teammate grabbed me by the arm and looked me dead in the eye…“It’s never maybe. You are always ready.”
As any athlete in combat sports comes to find out, the ability to choose when one is ready is a luxury. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu seeks to simulate this experience through competition so as to prepare athletes for the most practical application of learned skill sets in a controlled environment. Competitions allow Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) competitors to test their abilities and skill but in a safe environment with particular rules, regulations, referees, and judges (Scoggin, 2014) and are a crucial step for BJJ athletes. BJJ athletes and coaches typically focus all attention solely on physiological performance; however, new research suggests psychological tools such as arousal regulation, imagery, confidence, motivation, concentration, and injury management, may be the most powerful weapons for a brand new competitor in BJJ tournaments.
In general, “the art of jiu-jitsu searches for truth: pragmatically, since it works well in physical fights, and ethically because it seeks to defend both the lives of the assaulted and the assaulter” (Le, 2022). Many find that participating in BJJ helps to relieve stress and extraneous energy, provides an opportunity for exercise, builds confidence, has mental health benefits and more (Marc, 2020). However, these benefits can be questioned as tournaments loom overhead and the stress of competing begins to take over. While psychological tools are important in any sport, and naturally implemented for all athletes (i.e. goal setting), these tools become even more precious for an athlete who is new to the field of BJJ and approaching his/her first tournament.
Most BJJ athletes enter their first competition with at least six months of preparation and a training plan which focuses on “the manipulation of resistance training variables and the design of energetically specific metabolic conditioning drills, along with sports-specific training that accurately reflect the demands of competition” (Lachlan, 2014). Many research papers emphasize the importance of developing greater resistance and strength, striving to “generate maximal power…to develop force, storage and utilization of elastic energy, interactions of contractile and elastic elements…” (Cormie, 2011) and research is concentrated on topics such as blood glucose, lactate and maximal isometric grip strength (Andreato, 2013). However, such heavy training loads and the consequent stress can initiate great psychological changes and a higher risk of injury (Silva, 2019).
Based on the BJJ Tournament Preparation Questionnaire (see Appendix B) given to six BJJ competitors of ranging years of experience and number of competitions, injuries, confidence, and self-efficacy were the highest point of concern. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu focuses on “takedowns, joint locks, leverage, and strategy to immobilize, control, submit, and disable an attacker…[and] allows a smaller or physically weaker person to successfully subdue a larger, stronger opponent by using proper technique, including joint locks and chokeholds” (Scoggin, 2014). The results of a study done by Dr. Rodriego Silva and his colleagues highlight the dangers of this approach, claiming that BJJ athletes are exposed to a high risk of injuries during competition, particularly resulting from falls, overexertion, or joint locks (2019). Furthermore, results from the BJJ Tournament Preparation Questionnaire show that confidence and self-efficacy consistently ranked lower for all athletes, regardless of their level. Experience can naturally build up or tear down confidence, but new research says that there may be other tools athletes can use.
Psychological skills training (PST) “refers to systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills for the purpose of enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater sport and physical activity self-satisfaction” (Weinberg, 2019). The methods and techniques that make up PST come from a wide range of sources in psychology such as, cognitive behavior therapy, rational emotive therapy, goal setting, attentional control, progressive muscle relaxation, and systematic desensitization (Weinburg, 2019). PST helps prepare athletes for losses, choking (poor performance under pressure), injuries, loss of motivation, lack of focus, and anger management (Weinburg, 2019). However, it is important that PST is approached with balance which is why careful planning is crucial.
Most PST programs today implement the following skills during training: arousal regulation, imagery, confidence building, increasing motivation and commitment, attention or concentration skills, and coping with injury (Weinburg, 2019). As Sport Psychology continues to grow as a science, numerous studies have proven that “(a) both psychological and psychosocial interventions significantly enhanced sport performance, although psychosocial interventions produced the largest positive effects, (b) performance effects lasted about a month after the completion of the intervention, (c) effects were greater when coaches delivered the intervention, and (d) effects were somewhat greater for males than females” (Weinberg, 2019). Furthermore, international-caliber athletes often “employ more elaborate and complex mental strategies and techniques” than the average athlete which is directly linked to their success (Weinburg, 2019).
PST requires three stages: Education (learning the importance of PST and how PST affects performance), Acquisition (acquiring strategies and techniques), and Practice (automate skills through overlearning, integrate psychological skills into their performance, and simulate those skills used in competition) (Weinberg, 2019). It is a long-term process that should be implemented from the beginning (or during off seasons) and is not effective as a “last resort”. PST sessions are typically 10-15 minutes long and 3-5 days a week at the beginning or end of physical training. The skills chosen should be customized to the athlete and implemented by both the coach and sport psychology consultant. Furthermore, each type of sport may have a particular area that needs more psychological support than others.
Many martial art forms focus on both the physical and psychological responses so that “fighting should be a last resort, for a just cause, engaged with the intention for peace and reconciliation, with the appropriate amount of force, while keeping emotions in check” (Le, 2022). Higher levels of cortisol have been reported in BJJ competitors and 100% of the participants in the BJJ Tournament Preparation Questionnaire experience the greatest amount of stress before the competition. “This suggests that BJJ athletes experience greater amounts of both psychological and physical stress during the competition than practice” (Lachlan, 2014). Consequently, it is paramount for beginner athletes to be able to regulate arousal. Wojciech J. Cynarski, the Chair of Cultural Foundations for Physical Education at the University of Rzeszow and a Martial Arts instructor since 1987 summarizes this point succinctly. “What is the meaning of fighting? This is above all a test of skills and emotional self-control” (Cynarski, 2016). But if the same amount of cortisol is not present in athletes who are practicing, then it does not adequately prepare a new athlete for regulating arousal during competition, and especially not for real life situations.
There are many approaches to regulating arousal in sport psychology, i.e. Multidimensional Anxiety Theory, Reversal Theory, Catastrophe Theory, Challenge and Threat States, and more (Turner, 2018). Dr. Turner and Dr. Marc Jones, faculty members of Health Sciences at Staffordshire University, identify two ways to regulate arousal without the actual situation. First, create a challenging environment during practice. Challenge instructions focus on raising resource appraisals, self-efficacy, goal setting, and goal orientation, while teaching the athlete to decrease demand appraisals, such as uncertainty. Instructional sets, the information an athlete is or isn’t provided, and threat instructions, the level of difficulty and perseverance required, can also alter an athlete’s arousal (Turner, 2018). “Challenge instructions promoted high self-efficacy, high perceived control, and a focus on approach goals; threat instructions promoted low self efficacy, low perceived control, and a focus on avoidance goals…Therefore, information offered to individuals that promotes high perceived resources, such as the instructions used in past research…may help those who receive them to enter a challenge state” (Turner, 2018). Implementing tournament rules and regulations along with fluctuating schedule changes during practice gives athletes the opportunity to adapt and build confidence. Furthermore,“a significant body of research indicates that social support provides a buffer for the adverse effects of stress” (Turner, 2018). Dr. Turner and his colleagues found that social support:
…provides those in receipt with coping guidance, similar to challenge instructions, and contributes to positive appraisal by helping those in receipt clarify their understanding of threatening stimuli…Informational social support can be used to help convince an individual that they can cope with the stressor…[and therefore] promotes high perceived resources…[and] positively influences performance, regardless of the level of stress” (Turner 2018).
Finally, reappraisal (perceiving anxiety as helpful), relaxation techniques, and imagery also can contribute to more successful arousal regulation.
Imagery is a newer, yet very natural psychological tool that has emerged as a powerful resource for all athletes. “Mental imagery typically refers to internal representations and the attendant experience of sensory information without an external stimulus…[and] has a stronger impact on subjectively experienced emotions than verbal processing” (Hiskey, 2021). Imagery can be visualized through a first-person lens or as an observer and can be further broken down into five categories “correcting/adapting new skills, devising/updating plans, imagining success, managing anticipation and excitement, and mastery (remaining confident)” (Hiskey, 2021). Research shows that conflicts continue influencing the mind through retroactive and proactive imagined interactions through mental imagery, whether purposefully or naturally replayed by the athlete and “constructive conflict resolution is likely enhanced by vividly imagining more positive interactions and outcomes” (Hiskey, 2021). Consequently, regular imagery helps with cognitive and motivational purposes and can increase self-confidence and self-efficacy. Mastery and goal imagery in particular indirectly influence the intensity and direction of cognitive and somatic anxiety through confidence. (Hiskey, 2021). Imagery can help new competitors prepare for the additional emotional and situational factors that don’t arise in practice for competitions and teach themselves to account for unexpected holds, blows, or pain before even experiencing it.
Almost all participants of the questionnaire claimed to visualize working through tough situations prior to competition. Through PST, these skills can be heightened. New research shows that imagery is most successful when paired with layered stimulus response training (LSRT) which “aims to help users better generate and control their experiences of imagery by adding three components in successive layers of information” (Hiskey, 2021). “Imagery is not simply visualising yourself winning or crossing the finishing line. It’s about putting your mind in the best space to achieve this” (Sport Resilience, 2016). For the best results, imagery should be constantly updated to reflect new goals and be done in real-time. Finally, all imagined scenarios should include the following categories: physical, environmental, task, timing, learning, emotion and perspective (Sport Resilience, 2016).
Replaying these experiences will naturally result in confidence, that is, “the belief in achieving the desired outcome in competition, despite personal or competition-specific distractions and irrespective of the performer’s actual competence” (Chen, 2013), which is a major proponent of Brazilian jiu-jitsu (Reusing, 2014). Confidence is influenced by a range of different factors athletes should be aware of, such as performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences (modeling), verbal persuasion, imaginal experiences, psychological states, and emotional states (Weinberg, 2019). The relationship between confidence and performance can be represented by an inverted-U. Too little or too much confidence results in poor performance, and PST helps athletes achieve this balance. The results of the BJJ Tournament Preparation Questionnaire revealed that confidence, though vital to competition, was markedly low.
Fortunately, there are a variety of ways to improve confidence (Weinberg, 2019). First, many athletes are naturally encouraged by focusing on performance accomplishments. But what if this is the first time an athlete is competing? Weinberg (et. al) suggests turning one’s attention to the smaller accomplishments done in practice (2019). Acting confident, responding with confidence, and thinking confidently, even if the athlete doesn’t feel like it, is statistically proven to positively influence performance. But this doesn’t mean one shies away from unpleasant feelings. On the contrary, Vealey and Vernau suggest the ACT method: “Accept bad feelings/performance, center yourself with a comfortable, confident posture, and think using prepared self-talk and focusing on the aspects one has control over” (Weinberg, 2019). As stated above, imagery can also build confidence by repeating past or potential scenarios as a way to learn and build up consistent patterns. Goal mapping (personalized plans that include a range of different types of goals) and optimizing physical conditioning and training, while they may seem like obvious ways to build confidence, are surprisingly hard to keep up over long stretches of time.
Motivation and concentration skills can waiver at times, particularly under high amounts of stress. Motivation is the ability to persist at an activity in the face of boredom, fatigue, pain, and the desire to do other things (Taylor, 1995). It is a hypothetical construct which describes the internal or external forces that shape and advance initiative, direction, intensity, and the duration of any behavior (Jocić, 2021). “Motivation, according to the self determination theory, stretches along the continuum from amotivation (when an individual has no desire or intention to participate in an activity) through extrinsic motivation (when an individual is active only because of the very value that activity brings) to intrinsic motivation (participating for pleasure)” (Jocić, 2021). The key point of the Self-Determination Theory is to reach autonomous self-regulation because in this mindset, athletes will self-initiate and persist in any activity due to the fact that they perceive tasks to be interesting and important (Jocić, 2021). “Therefore, autonomous motivation refers to engaging in a particular type of behaviour because it is perceived to be consistent with intrinsic goals or outcomes” (Jocić, 2021). Dr. Taylor’s research shows that gross motor skills, long duration, and long, intensive pre-competition preparation require high motivation (Taylor, 1995). “Ways to maintain motivation include short-term goal setting, using motivational keywords, engaging in motivational imagery and increasing intensity” (Taylor, 1995). Furthermore, putting more emphasis on the process, such as tactics and technique, instead of the outcome naturally focuses on what the athlete can control, and will lead to better performance (Taylor, 1995). But when there is extraordinary noise or pressure, it becomes hard to force one’s attention to the task at hand, and thus, motivation and concentration are integrally linked.
There are four main types of concentration that aid an athlete during stressful situations: 1) the ability to focus on key environmental cues (selective attention), 2) maintaining focus on what is directly at hand, 3) being aware of the situation and 4) any performance errors, and the ability to shift attention when necessary. “Expert players attend more to advanced information…[and] movement patterns of their opponents, search more systematically, selectively attend to the structure inherent in their particular sport, and are more successful in predicting” (Weinberg, 2019). The first step to better maintaining focus is to understand the different categories, i.e. broad attentional focus (assess the whole situation), narrow attentional focus (assessing one/two cues), external attentional focus (assessing environment), and internal attentional focus (assess inward thoughts/feelings), and knowing how they relate to one another (Weinberg, 2019). A second key factor of concentration includes mindfulness: “awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose to the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment” (Weinberg, 2019). Athletes use mindfulness to use positive-self talk and self-regulate by “attending to one object for long periods, shifting attention between objects, and inhibiting task-irrelevant thoughts and feelings” (Weinberg, 2019). Mindfulness consequently reduces arousal enough to be entirely attentive to the task at hand. Finally, predicting one’s behavior, most accurately through imagery, can encourage better results. But motivation and concentration can come to an abrupt halt when unpredicted setbacks, such as injuries, occur.
All athletes must learn to cope with injury and, depending on the severity, athletes have a range of responses when coping with setbacks. “This grief reaction has been widely cited in early articles about the psychology of injury, but evidence shows that although individuals may exhibit many of these emotions in response to being injured, they do not follow a set, stereotypical pattern or necessarily feel each emotion in these five stages [denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance and reorganization]” (Weinberg, 2019). Athletes generally experience these three processes consistently: injury-relevant information processing, emotional upheaval and reactive behavior, and positive outlook and coping. Athletes can also experience identity loss, fear and anxiety, lack of confidence, performance decrements, and a reduction of team cohesion. Consequently, injuries affect athletes mentally, physically, and psychologically with varied severity and long-term effects. As mentioned above, BJJ athletes are specifically trained to inflict injuries and thus, competitions are naturally a cause for concern.
BJJ techniques are designed to either restrict blood flow to the brain or manipulate the joints to cause serious or permanent injury (Le, 2022). It is important to note, however, that injuries affect the whole person. “Injury can be one of the most frustrating elements of being an athlete. However, when your body is healing, your mind needs to remain strong. To help focus the mind, and for overall wellbeing, imagery in sport can be a welcomed tool.” (Sport Resilience, 2016). Positive psychology techniques, such as goal setting and positive talk can constructively affect the athletes’ mood, coping skills, and confidence. There may be evidence that suggests imagery can even expedite the healing time period. Having these tools prepared before entering competition can reduce the fear of injury and the stress of putting oneself in a vulnerable position. Consequently, less stress allows for greater arousal regulation, concentration, and confidence.
All psychological training aims to reach an optimal experience, known by sport psychologists as flow, “a harmonious and intrinsically rewarding state characterized by intense focus and absorption in a specific activity, to the exclusion of irrelevant thoughts and emotions, and a sense of everything coming together or clicking into place, even in challenging situations” (Le, 2022). Flow can be reached by training both the physical skill sets required as well as psychological tools such as arousal regulation, imagery, confidence building, increasing motivation and commitment, attention or concentration skills, and coping with injury prior to competition. There are a range of ways to implement individualized PST programs for each athlete which increase the athlete’s chances of remaining in control and performing well. These tools particularly come to the aid of new BJJ competitors who lack significant experience. However, as is seen by the questionnaire, athletes from all different levels of experience could benefit from building confidence and coping with the stress of potential injuries. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu athletes, don’t always have the privilege of being fully prepared, of squeezing in an extra second to put on a positive mindset, an extra lesson on joint-locks…another day to get up and try again. “It’s never maybe. You are always ready.”
References
Andreato, L. V., de Moraes, S. M. F., Del Conti Esteves, J. V., Miranda, M. L., Pastório, J. J., Pastório, E. J., Magnani Branco, B. H., & Franchini, E. (2014). Psychological, Physiological, Performance and Perceptive Responses to Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Combats. Kinesiology, 46(1), 44–52.
Andreato L. V., Franchini E., de Moraes SM, Pastório J.J., da Silva D.F., Esteves J.V., Branco B.H., Romero P.V., and Machado F.A. (2013). Physiological and Technical-tactical Analysis in Brazilian Jiu-jitsu Competition. Asian J Sports Med. 4(2):137-43. doi: 10.5812/asjsm.34496. Epub 2013 Feb 12. PMID: 23802056; PMCID: PMC3690734.
Chen, M. A. and Cheesman, D. J. (2013). Mental Toughness of Mixed Martial Arts Athletes at Different Levels of Competition. SAGE Publications Inc. 905-917. doi: 10.2466/29.30.PMS.116.3.905-917
Cormie P, McGuigan M.R., and Newton R.U., (2011). Developing maximal neuromuscular power: Part 1--biological basis of maximal power production. Sports Med. 41(1):17-38. doi: 10.2165/11537690-000000000-00000. PMID: 21142282.
Cynarski, W. J. (2016) Ido Movement For Culture. Journal Of Martial Arts Anthropology. Vol. 16, No. 2, Pp. 1–7 Doi: 10.14589/Ido.16.2.1
Imagery (2016). Sport Resilience. https://sportresilience.com/imagery/.
Jocić, J. T., & Petrović, J. (2021). Understanding of Dropping out of Sports in Adolescence - Testing the Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. Kinesiology, 53(2), 245–256. https://doi-org.ezproxy.umary.edu/10.26582/k.53.2.7
Hiskey, S. and Clapton, N, E. (2021). Distress Tolerance Imagery Training. Martial Arts Studies 11, 46-55. 10.18573/mas.121.
Lachlan J., P. MSportCoach, MExercSc. (2014) An Evidenced-Based Training Plan for Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. Strength and Conditioning Journal 36(4):p 14-22, DOI: 10.1519/SSC.0000000000000053
Le, “Joey” Alan. (2022). Martial Arts in Search of Transcendence: Beauty, Truth and Goodness in Brazilian Jiu - Jitsu. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 34(1/2), 172–194. https://doi-org.ezproxy.umary.edu/10.5840/jis2022341/210
Marc (2020). The 17 Time-Tested Benefits of Brazilian Jiu Jitsu. BJJ Success. https://www.bjjsuccess.com/benefits-of-brazilian-jiu-jitsu/
Scoggin., J, F,. Brusovanik, G., Izuka, B. H., Van Rilland, E. Z., Geling O., and Tokumura, S., (2014). Assessment of Injuries During Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Competition. The Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1177/2325967114522184
Silva, R. S., Andrade, A., Guimarães Bevilacqua, G., Schlösser, A., Alencar Flores Junior, M., Dos Santos Severino, B., & Soares Rodrigues, M. E. (2019). Mood states and self-rated health of Brazilian jiu-jitsu fighters in competition. Revista de Artes Marciales Asiaticas, 14, 43–46. https://doi-org.ezproxy.umary.edu/10.18002/rama.v14i2s.5970
Reusing, H. M. (2014). The language of martial arts: The transformative potential of brazilian jiu-jitsu through the lens of depth psychology. Publicly Available Content Database. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/language-martial-arts-transformative-potential/docview/1656449017/se-2
Taylor, J. (1995). A conceptual model for integrating athlete’s needs and sport demands in the development of mental preparation strategies. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 339-357.
Turner, M., & Jones, M. (2018). Arousal Control in Sport. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.155
Weinberg, R, & Gould, D. (2018). Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7th Edition. Human Kinetics.